Global Inequalities Essay -- essays research papers

I found the book Global Inequalities quite interesting as well as being very informative. I enjoyed reading this book because unlike many other texts it was not very â€Å"cut and dry†, rather it was easy to read and Bradshaw and Wallace did a good job illustrating major points. This made the book easy to read because it did not require me to re-read many passages to understand the ideas presented. Prior to reading this book, I did not have too much knowledge about world events that have occurred in the past. I learned a great deal about international events, it also clarified many ideas that I had previously learned but was not too sure about the details. I found it extremely interesting learning about all of the different cultures and lifestyles that many countries enjoy around the world. I only have one complaint about the book; it is that the book is not very up-to-date. Many of the ideas pointed illustrated by Bradshaw and Wallace is out dated. In fact a couple of the id eas that are talked about have changed over time or even been solved since the book went to print, however even though some of the ideas are out dated many are still very interesting to read about. In general I thought that Bradshaw and Wallace did an excellent job composing a book that clearly illustrates many of the cultures including ours and the problems facing them over time.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Throughout the book Bradshaw and Wallace have presented many ideas that illustrate several inequalities throughout the world. There were three major points that I felt were the most important to my overall understanding of how cultures greatly differ from each other and the global inequalities around the world. In my opinion these ideas were important because they explain many of the problems that both developing and developed countries face on a daily basis. They were colonization, the Modernization Theory and World Systems Theory and the section about Baseball in Asia. Although Bradshaw and Wallace have presented many ideas and issues, I felt that these easily explained some main reasons as to why global inequalities transpire.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The first point that I felt was significant was the theory of colonization. Colonization was how many underdeveloped countries were formed; this also led to many problems in those respective countries. Colonization caused many ... ...ican’s have definitely seen plenty of fights, arguments, and off-field problems. In Japan this stuff would most likely never occur. Another major difference between Japanese baseball and American baseball is the fact that in Japan there is such a thing as a tie, however not in the U.S. In the United States a baseball game would not end until there was no longer a tie, no matter how long it took. In Japan the game will go no longer than four hours or twelve innings. These are some very big differences between our â€Å"American Pastime† and Japanese baseball. These are all ideas the Bradshaw and Wallace clearly illustrate as being â€Å"Global Inequalities†.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Throughout this book, Bradshaw and Wallace really helped me grasp more of an understanding about how much the world differs going from one culture to another. Being an athlete myself, the section about how much baseball differs from the U.S. to Japan really pointed out how the differences are extensive. The first two issues have led to many countries becoming underdeveloped. All of these issues are very important and are a learning process for all societies that wish to become a success in the near future.

Tissue Culture Technique for Callus Induction

Sarhad J. Agric. Vol. 23, No. 1, 2007 * Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, NWFP Agricultural University, Peshawar – Pakistan. ** Agricultural Biotechnology Institute, National Agricultural Research Center, Islamabad – Pakistan. TISSUE CULTURE TECHNIQUES FOR CALLUS INDUCTION IN RICE Hidayat Ullah*, Iltaf Ullah*, Sultan Akbar Jadoon* and Hamid Rashid** ABSTRACT Seeds of two rice varieties Basmati-370 and Basmati-385 were evaluated for invitro callus induction at Agricultural Biotechnology Institute in National Agricultural Research Center (NARC), Islamabad during 2001-02, using M.S and N6 media supplemented with 2, 4-D (2,4-Dichlorophenoxi acetic acid) and BAP (6-benzylaminopurine) at @ 2. 0, 2. 5 and 0. 1, 0. 5 mgl-1 respectively. Objective of our study is to know the actual procedure for seed sterilization and to provide a well-adopted technique for callus induction in these varieties by using M. S and N6 media along with different concentrations of growth hormo nes. Seeds were used as explant source and to avoid chance of contamination sodium hypochlorite and ethanol at the rate of 50% and 70% were used respectively.Best response toward callus induction were observed for Bas-385 on both MS and N6 media however N6 media was proved to be best. Calli obtained from Bas-385 were friable and vigorous as compare to Bas-370. Bas-370 respond moderately on MS and N6 media at various combinations of 2,4-D and BAP. Bas-370 on MS media supplemented with 2,4-D and BAP @ 2. 0 and 0. 1 mgl-1 gave good performance towards callus induction. Over all results indicated that best callus were induced on MS and N6 when supplemented with 2,4-D and BAP @2. 0 and 0. 0 mgl-1 for variety Bas-385. INTRODUCTION In Pakistan rice is the second leading crop after wheat.In 2000-2001, the world annual production of rice was 598 million tones (FAO 2002). Asia is the largest producer of rice, with Bangladesh, China, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnams as the leading rice produ cing nations. In Pakistan rice covered an area of 2. 52 million ha, with the production of 5. 16 million tones in 1999-2000. It also play important role in our national economy. During 1999-2000 about 1. 92 million tones of rice was exported and earn about 465. 8 million US$. Rice is susceptible to a range of diseases and pests, which annually destroy about 55 percent of rice crops. The most common diseases are caused by he fungi sheath blight and rice blast, and the stalk borer is a common insect pest. Rice is composed of essential food components, therefore more than two billions people in the globe depend on rice for more than half of the proteins and calories they consume (Khan et al. 2000). Due to its increasing importance in nutrition and economy, it is now felt that new varieties of rice, having good agronomic characters, should be evolved. Crop improvement through tissue culture techniques is easier and more often in use as compared to conventional plant breeding (Yamada, 19 86). Somaclonal variations commonly ppear after tissue culture, which involve a callus stage (Larkin and Scow Croft 1981). Callus is undifferentiated mass of rapidly proliferating cells, can be obtained by culturing explants source (seed, node, bud, leaves, meristem and root tips etc) on nutrient medium containing specific growth regulators along with a standard recipe of chemicals. Rashid et al. (2000) studied that rice seeds have more potential for callogenesis as compared to node or tip. Successful callus induction from rice seed has been reported by several researchers (Gonalz 2000; Navraj et al. 1999; Marrassi 1996; Valdez et al. 1997; Xie et al. 995). But an improved method for callogenesis was reported by Rashid et al. 2000). The present study is based on tissue culture techniques carried out in ABI laboratory for callus induction in rice varieties viz. Basmati-370 and Basmati-385. Two types of basal media M. S (Murashige and Skoog 1962) and N6 (Nitsch and Nitsch, 1969) suppl emented with 2,4-D (2,4- dichlorophenoxyacetic acid) alone or in combination with different concentrations of BAP (6-benzylaminopurine) were used for callus induction. Hidayat Ullah, et al. Tissue culture techniques for callus induction in rice†¦. 82 MATERIALS AND METHODSThe research work for callus induction in rice was conducted at the tissue culture laboratory of Agricultural Biotechnology Institute in National Agricultural Research Center (NARC), Islamabad, during 2001-02. The procedure of this research work has been divided in the following four main categories. Surface Sterilization of Rice Seeds Seeds of Basmati-370 and Basmati-385 were provided by rice programmed, Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (ABI), National Agricultural Research Center Islamabad, and it was taken as explant source for callus induction. Healthy and mature seeds were selected by hysical appearance and they were dehusked manually. Seeds were first washed with detergent and then rinsed three times with simple tap water. For surface sterilization of seeds Clorox (5. 25% sodium hypochlorite) and ethanol was applied. After the applications of Clorox and ethanol seeds were rinsed thrice with autoclaved distilled water. Finally the seeds were dried with autoclaved filter paper, and they were shifted carefully to the culture room of Agricultural Biotechnology Institute. Basal Media Preparation M. S and N6 basal media were used for callus initiation. These media were prepared according to he ingredients (Table I). The exact amount of nutrients was dissolved in the distilled water. Two types of growth regulators 2,4-D alone or in combination with BAP was used for callus induction. 2,4-D @ 2. 0 and 2. 5 mg l-1 and BAP @ 0. 0, 0. 1, 0. 5 mg l-1 respectively was added in the media. Sucrose at the rate of 3% and agar at the rate of 0. 7% was also added in the media. PH of the media was adjusted at 5. 78-5. 80 with the help of PH-meter. M. S. and N6 media were poured into the test tubes, it was plugged properly and autoclaved at 20 lbs pressure for 15 minutes in the autoclave machine.Inoculation of Sterilized Seeds The most important step in tissue culture technique is the inoculation of seeds. This operation was performed in the laminar flow cabinet at the culture room of ABI. Before the operation surface sterilization of the laminar flow unit was carried by UV-light for two minutes. After that hands were disinfected with 75% ethanol to prevent chance of contamination. Dried seeds were then inoculated into test tubes under aseptic condition in laminar flow unit. To minimize chance of infection the instruments were dipped in disinfectant after every operation. Growth ChamberInoculated cultures were incubated at 25 ±3? C under the influence of 2000-lux light intensity for 16 hours photoperiod. Callus induction of rice seeds were observed after 21- days. The data for callus induction frequency were recorded for two rice varieties on two different media with differen t concentrations of growth regulators. Table I Composition of MS and N6 media Macronutrients KNO3 1900 2830 NH4NO3 1650 0 CaCl2. 2H2O 440 166 MgSO4 370 90. 37 KH2PO4 170 400 (NH4)2 SO4 — 463 Micronutrients MnSO4. H2O 16. 9 3. 33 H3BO3 6. 2 1. 6 KI 0. 83 0. 80 ZnSO4. 4H2O 8. 6 — ZnSO4. 7H2O — 1. 5 NaMoO4. 2H2O 0. 5 — CuSO4. 5H2O 0. 025 — CoCl2. 6H2O 0. 025 — Iron source FeSO4. 7H2O 27. 85 27. 85 NaEDTA 37. 25 37. 25 Vitamins Myoinositol 100 — Nicotinic Acid 0. 5 0. 5 Pyridoxine HCl 0. 5 0. 5 Thiamine HCl 0. 1 1. 0 Glycine 2. 0 — Sucrose 30g 30g Agar 7g 7g RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Results obtained from tissue culture techniques of Bas-370 and Bas-385 performed in ABI laboratory and repeated three times from 10th February to Sarhad J. Agric. Vol. 23, No. 1, 2007 83 October 2001. Chance of contamination was much low when both the varieties were treated with 50% Clorox and 70% ethanol. Oono (1981) also used eeds as explants source for rice callus induction. The main objective of our study is to know the actual procedure for seed sterilization and callogenesis in these cultivars. The potential of both varieties for callus induction was observed significantly different on M. S and N6 media at different concentrations of growth regulators. It is noteworthy that N6 and M. S media, which proved to be optimum for the growth of callus, were unable to support cell growth in liquid media. Callus induced from both the varieties were different at various level of 2,4-D and BAP. Maximum callus formation (62. 5%) was recorded or Bas-385, followed by Bas-370 (55. 55%) when seeds were cultured on MS medium supplemented with 2,[email  protected] 0 mgl-1 and 2mgl-1 2,4-D+0. 1mgl-1 BAP respectively (Table II and IV). Lowest callus of 41. 66 % was observed each for Bas-370 and Bas-385 when MS medium is supplemented with 2. 5 and 0. 5 mgl-1 of 2,4-D and BAP respectively. It is cleared that potential of Bas-385 towards callogenesi s was higher than Bas-370. Averaged across MS media callus induction frequency was 48. 14 % for BAS-370 vs 53. 22 % for BAS-385 (Fig 2). This is equivalent to the net reduction of 5. 08 % for BAS-370. Growth regulator 2,4-D at he rate of 2mgl-1 was suggested and proved to be best for callus induction in both the varieties. Using N6 media callus induction frequency ranged from 20. 83 to 68. 05% for both the varieties. When 2,[email  protected] was supplemented with N6 media, produced highest and good quality callus from Bas-385 (68. 05%) and minimum (20. 83%) from Bas-370 (Table III and IV). This result indicated positive correlation between 2,4-D and Bas-385 and negative for Bas-370. Average across N6 media callus induction frequency was 23. 6 % for Bas-370 vs 60. 64 % for Bas-385 (Fig. 3). This is equivalent to the net reduction of 7. 2 % for BAS- 370. Calli obtained from both the varieties were friable, granular, and yellow in color. So it was proved that N6 media is better for callus induction of rice as compared to M. S medium. Overall result of BAS-385 was best on various concentrations of 2,4-D and BAP on both, MS and N6 media. Callus form Bas-385 was healthy and more fleshy as compare to Bas-370 (Figure 1). The active division of cells was more prominent in the callus of Bas-385, that’s why it looks bulky. Secondly Bas-385 had more capacity for producing callus, especially when N6 media supplemented with 2,4- [email  protected]Agronomic features of Bas-385 are also better than Bas-370 because it is developed through hybridization between Bas-370 and TN-1. Callus induction must be dependent on the genetic potentials of the variety and secondly the combination of hormones at different concentration. Callus induction is the best way to create somaclonal variations in crop plants. Variations are the basis for improvement and some time this variation is heritable. Oono (1981) cultured seed explants of rice varieties and observed variation for cert ain agronomic characters that are also heritable. Once cultured techniques were stablished in rice, it become possible to apply them for callus regeneration and transformation. (b) Calli obtained from Bas-385 (a) Calli Obtained form Bas-370 Hidayat Ullah, et al. Tissue culture techniques for callus induction in rice†¦. 84 Table II Percentage callus induction frequency and contamination in Bas-370 on M. S Medium Treatments Sterilizing agents Clorox time/Ethano l time (min) Hormone in mg L-1 # Of inoculated test tubes % Contamination % Callus induction frequency % Clorox % Ethanol 2,4-D BAP 1 50 70 20/1. 0 2. 0 0. 0 72 58. 33% 20. 83% 2 50 70 20/2. 0 2. 0 0. 1 72 73. 61% 22. 22% 50 70 20/4. 0 2. 5 0. 5 72 52. 77% 27. 77% Table III Percentage callus induction frequency and contamination in Bas-370 on N6 Medium. Treatments Sterilizing agents Clorox time/Ethano l time (min) Hormone used in mg L-1 # Of inoculated test tubes % Contami nation % Callus induction frequency % Clorox % Eth anol 2,4-D BAP % Clorox 1 50 70 20/1. 0 2. 0 0. 0 72 1 50 2 50 70 20/2. 0 2. 0 0. 1 72 2 50 3 50 70 20/4. 0 2. 5 0. 5 72 3 50 Table IV Percentage callus induction frequency and contamination in Bas-385 on M. S Medium. Treatments Sterilizing agents Clorox /Ethanol time (min) Hormone used in mg L-1 Of inoculated test tubes % Contami nation % Callus induction % Clorox % Ethanol 2,4-D BAP % Clorox 1 50 70 20/1. 0 2. 0 0. 0 72 1 50 2 50 70 20/2. 0 2. 0 0. 1 72 2 50 3 50 70 20/4. 0 2. 5 0. 5 72 3 50 Table V. Percentage callus induction frequency and contamination in Bas-385 on N6 Medium Treatments Sterilizing agents Clorox/Etha nol time (min) Hormone used in mg L-1 # Of inoculated test tubes % Contami nation % Callus induction frequency % Clorox % Ethanol 2,4-D BAP % Clorox 1 50 70 20/1. 0 2. 0 0. 0 72 1 50 2 50 70 20/2. 0 2. 0 0. 1 72 2 50 3 50 70 20/4. 0 2. 5 0. 5 72 3 50 Sarhad J. Agric. Vol. 3, No. 1, 2007 85 20. 83 62. 5 22. 22 55. 5 27. 77 41. 66 0 20 40 60 80 Bas-370 Bas-385 Variet ies Callus induction freq (%) 2,4-D&[email  protected] 0&0. 0 2,4-D&[email  protected] 0&0. 1 2,4-D&[email  protected] 5&0. 5 47. 22 68. 05 55. 55 61. 11 41. 66 52. 77 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Bas-370 Bas-385 Varieties Callus induction freq (%) 2,4-D&[email  protected] 0&0. 0 2,4-D&[email  protected] 0&0. 1 2,4-D&[email  protected] 5&0. 5 Fig. 2. Callus induction frequency (%) of Bas-370 and Bas-385 on M. S media at different level of 2,4-D and BAP. Fig. 3. Callus induction frequency (%) of Bas-370 and Bas-385 on N6 media at different level of 2,4-D and BAP. Hidayat Ullah, et al.Tissue culture techniques for callus induction in rice†¦. 86 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION Infections of the callus is main problem in tissue culture technique so we should adopt the following precautions. 1. We should sterilize the seeds in 50% hypochlorite solution for 20 minutes and all the apparatus like flasks, petri plates, blades and forceps etc. should be disinfectant with 70% ethan ol. Media should be prepared accurately with respect to concentrations and PH of the media must be maintained properly. Exact amount of growth hormones must be added. 2. Seeds of Bas-370 on MS media with combination 2. and 0. 1mgl-1 should be used to get maximum callus, while hormonal combination 2,4-D and BAP @2. 0 and 0. 0 mg l-1 should be used for better callus induction of Bas-385 on N6 media. Bas-385 is an improved version of Bas-370 because it is developed through hybridization between Bas-370 and TN-1. That’s why it is more responsive towards callus as will as high doses of fertilizers. Over all results indicated that Bas- 385 having more potentials and suitable for further genetic studies. REFERENCES FAO. 2002 Food Outlook Bullet. No: 1,FAO, Rome. Gonalz, M. C. 2000. Effects of different growth egulators on in vitro culture of rice cultivors. Tropicales. 21(1): 27-28. Khan, J. A. , F. F. Jamil and M. A. Gill. 2000. Screnning of rice varieties against bakanae and bacte rial leaf blight. Pak. J. Phytopath. 12(1): 6-11. Larkin, P. J. and W. R. Scowcraft. 1981. Somaclonal variation a novel source of variability from cell cultures of plant improvement. Theor. Appld. Genet. 60:197-214. Marasi, M. A. , O. A. Bovo, A. Socchi and L. A. Mrongiski. 1996. Cytokining in the callus induction medium for plant regeneration of rice. Phyton Int, J. Exp. Bot. 59(1-2): 155-160. Murashige, T. and F. Skoog. 1962.Arevised medium for rapid growth and bioassays with tobacco tissue cultures. Physiol. Plant. 15: 473-497. Navraj, K. , M. S. Gill, G. Raman, T. S. Bharaj, S. S. Gosal, N. Kaur and R. Gill. 1999. Factors enhancing somatic embryogenesis and high frequency plant regeneration in rice. Crop Improv. 26(1): 23-27. Nitsch, J. P. and C. Nitsch. 1969. Haploid plants from pollen grains. Sci. 163: 85-87. Oono, K. 1981. In vitro methods applied to rice in plant tissue culture. T. Athorpe, ed. Acad. Press, New York. pp. 273-298. Rashid, H. , A. Toriyama, K. Qurashi, Hinta a nd K. A. Malik. 2000. An improved method for hoot regeneration from calli of Indica rice. Pak. J. Biol. Sci. 3 (12): 2229-2231. Valdez, M. , M. Monoz, J. R. Vega and A. M. Espinoza. 1997. Plant regeneration of Indica rice from mature embryo derived calli. Revistade Biologia Tropical. 44(3): 13-21. Xie, J. H. , M. W. Gao, Q. H. Cai, X. Y. Chens, Y. W. Shen and Z. Q. Liang. 1995 Optimized growth regulators combination in Japonica rice. Plant Cell Tissue and Organ Culture. 42(3): 245-250. Yamada, Y. , T. Q. Yang and D. T. Tang. 1986. Plant regeneration from protoplast derived callus of rice (Oryza sativa L. ). Plant Cell Reports. 4: 85-88

The Renaissance: the Invention of the Printing Press

At the height of the Hussite crisis in the early 1400's, when the authorities ordered 200 manuscripts of heretical writings burned, people on both sides realized quite well the significance of that act. Two hundred handwritten manuscripts would be hard to replace. Not only would it be a time consuming job, but also trained scribes would be hard to find. After all, most of them worked for the Church, and it seemed unlikely that the Church would loan out its scribes to copy the works of heretics.Although the Hussites more than held their own against the Church, their movement remained confined mainly to the borders of their homeland of Bohemia. One main reason for this was that there was no mass media, such as the printing press to spread the word. A century later, all that had changed. Like any other invention, the printing press came along and had an impact when the right conditions existed at the right time and place. In this case, that was Europe in the mid 1400's.Like many or most inventions, the printing press was not the result of just one man's ingenious insight into all the problems involved in creating the printing press. Rather, printing was a combination of several different inventions and innovations: block printing, rag paper, oil based ink, interchangeable metal type, and the squeeze press. If one process started the chain reaction of events that led to the invention of the printing press, it was the rise of towns in Western Europe that sparked trade with the outside world all the way to China.That trade exposed Europeans to three things important for the invention of the printing press: rag paper, block printing, and, oddly enough, the Black Death. For centuries the Chinese had been making rag paper, which was made from a pulp of water and discarded rags that was then pressed into sheets of paper. When the Arabs met the Chinese at the battle of the Talas River in 751 A. D. , they carried off several prisoners skilled in making such paper. The tech nology spread gradually across the Muslim world, up through Spain and into Western Europe by the late 1200's.The squeeze press used in pressing the pulp into sheets of paper would also lend itself to pressing print evenly onto paper. The Black Death, which itself spread to Western Europe thanks to expanded trade routes, also greatly catalyzed the invention of the printing press in three ways, two of which combined with the invention of rag paper to provide Europe with plentiful paper. First of all, the survivors of the Black Death inherited the property of those who did not survive, so that even peasants found themselves a good deal richer.Since the textile industry was the most developed industry in Western Europe at that time, it should come as no surprise that people spent their money largely on new clothes. However, clothes wear out, leaving rags. As a result, fourteenth century Europe had plenty of rags to make into rag paper, which was much cheaper than the parchment (sheepski n) and vellum (calfskin) used to make books until then. Even by 1300, paper was only one-sixth the cost of parchment, and its relative cost continued to fall. Considering it took 170 calfskins or 300 sheepskins to make one copy of the Bible, we can see what a bargain paper was.But the Black Death had also killed off many of the monks who copied the books, since the crowded conditions in the monasteries had contributed to an unusually high mortality rate. One result of this was that the cost of copying books rose drastically while the cost of paper was dropping. Many people considered this unacceptable and looked for a better way to copy books. Thus the Black Death rag paper combined to create both lots of cheap paper plus an incentive for the invention of the printing press.The Black Death also helped lead to the decline of the Church, the rise of a money economy, and subsequently the Italian Renaissance with its secular ideas and emphasis on painting. It was the Renaissance artists who, in their search for a more durable paint, came up with oil-based paints. Adapting these to an oil-based ink that would adhere to metal type was fairly simple. Block printing, carved on porcelain, had existed for centuries before making its way to Europe. Some experiments with interchangeable copper type had been carried on in Korea.However, Chinese printing did not advance beyond that, possibly because the Chinese writing system used thousands of characters and was too unmanageable. For centuries after its introduction into Europe, block printing still found little use, since wooden printing blocks wore out quickly when compared to the time it took to carve them. As a result of the time and expense involved in making block prints, a few playing cards and pages of books were printed this way, but little else. What people needed was a movable type made of metal.And here again, the revival of towns and trade played a major role, since it stimulated a mining boom, especially in Ge rmany, along with better techniques for working metals, including soft metals such as gold and copper. It was a goldsmith from Mainz, Germany, Johannes Gutenberg, who created a durable and interchangeable metal type that allowed him to print many different pages, using the same letters over and over again in different combinations. It was also Gutenberg who combined all these disparate elements of movable type, rag paper, the squeeze press, and oil based inks to invent the first printing press in 1451.The first printed books were religious in nature, as were most medieval books. They also imitated (handwritten) manuscript form so that people would accept this new revolutionary way of copying books. The printing press soon changed the forms and uses of books quite radically. Books stopped imitating manuscript forms such as lined paper to help the copiers and abbreviations to save time in copying. They also covered an increasingly wider variety of non-religious topics (such as grammar s, etiquette, and geology books) that appealed especially to the professional members of the middle class.By 1482, there were about 100 printing presses in Western Europe: 50 in Italy, 30 in Germany, 9 in France, 8 each in Spain and Holland, and 4 in England. A Venetian printer, Aldus Manutius, realized that the real market was not for big heavy volumes of the Bible, but for smaller, cheaper, and easier to handle â€Å"pocket books†. Manutius further revolutionized book copying by his focusing on these smaller editions that more people could afford. He printed translations of the Greek classics and thus helped spread knowledge in general, and the Renaissance in particular, across Europe.By 1500, there were some 40,000 different editions with over 6,000,000 copies in print. The printing press had dramatic effects on European civilization. Its immediate effect was that it spread information quickly and accurately. This helped create a wider literate reading public. However, its importance lay not just in how it spread information and opinions, but also in what sorts of information and opinions it was spreading. There were two main directions printing took, both of which were probably totally unforeseen by its creators.First of all, more and more books of a secular nature were printed, with especially profound results in science. Scientists working on the same problem in different parts of Europe especially benefited, since they could print the results of their work and share it accurately with a large number of other scientists. They in turn could take that accurate, not miscopied, information, work with it and advance knowledge and understanding further. Of course, they could accurately share their information with many others and the process would continue.By the 1600's, this process would lead to the Scientific Revolution of the Enlightenment, which would radically alter how Europeans viewed the world and universe. The printing press also created its s hare of trouble as far as some people were concerned. It took book copying out of the hands of the Church and made it much harder for the Church to control or censor what was being written. It was hard enough to control what Wycliffe and Hus wrote with just a few hundred copies of their works in circulation.Imagine the problems the Church had when literally thousands of such works could be produced at a fraction of the cost. Each new printing press was just another hole in the dyke to be plugged up, and the Church had only so many fingers with which to do the job. It is no accident that the breakup of Europe's religious unity during the Protestant Reformation corresponded with the spread of printing. The difference between Martin Luther's successful Reformation and the Hussites' much more limited success was that Luther was armed with the printing press and knew how to use it with devastating effect.Some people go as far as to say that the printing press is the most important invent ion between the invention of writing itself and the computer. Although it is impossible to justify that statement to everyone's satisfaction, one can safely say that the printing press has been one of the most powerful inventions of the modern era. It has advanced and spread knowledge and molded public opinion in a way that nothing before the advent of television and radio in the twentieth century could rival. If it were not able to, then freedom of the press would not be such a jealously guarded liberty as it is today.

261 Ellison and Invisible Man Professor Ramos Blog

261 Ellison and Invisible Man Quick Write Ralph Ellison (1914 1994) Invisible Man (1952) Jazz: A Metaphor for America Crash Course Thug Notes

Myers Surname Meaning and Origin

Myers Surname Meaning and Origin The surname Myers or Myer is usually either of German or British origin, depending upon the country of the particular family. The German origin of the surname Myers has the meaning steward or bailiff, as in the magistrate of a city or town.​The English origin of the surname has three possible sources:   A patronymic surname meaning son of the mayor,  from  the Old English  maire  (maior)  meaning  mayor.A topographic surname for someone who lived near a marsh, or someone with mire (swampy, low-lying land) in the town name,  from the Old Norse myrr meaning marsh.Possibly a surname derived from the Old French  mire  meaning physician.   Myers can also be an  Anglicized form of the Gaelic surname Ó Midhir, likely a variant of Ó Meidhir, meaning mayor.   Myers is the 85th most popular surname in the United States. Surname Origin:  English, German Alternate Surname Spellings:  MYER, MEYERS, MEYER, MEERS, MEARS, MEARES, MYARS, MYRES, MIERS, MIARES, MYERES Famous People with the Surname MYERS Michael John Mike Myers: Canadian actor, comedian, screenwriter, director, and film producerStephenie Meyer: American author, best known for her Twilight book seriesJonathan Rhys Meyers: Irish actorWalter Dean Myers: American authorErnest Myers:  English poet, classicist, and author Where Do People With the MYERS Surname Live? Myers is the worlds 1,777th most common surname, according to surname distribution data from  Forebears, found most prevalently in the United States. It is most common based on a percentage of the population in Liberia, where it ranks 74th. It is a little less common in Canada, Australia, and England, where it ranks 427th, 435th and 447th respectively. Myers is especially common on Prince Edward Island, Canada, according to  WorldNames PublicProfiler. Within the United States, Myers is found most frequently in the states of West Virginia, Indiana, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Kansas and Ohio. Genealogy Resources for the Surname MYERS 100 Most Common U.S. Surnames Their MeaningsSmith, Johnson, Williams, Jones, Brown... Are you one of the millions of Americans sporting one of these top 100 common last names from the 2000 census? Myers Family Crest - Its Not What You ThinkContrary to what you may hear, there is no such thing as a Myers family crest or coat of arms for the Myers surname.  Coats of arms are granted to individuals, not families, and may rightfully be used only by the uninterrupted male-line descendants of the person to whom the coat of arms was originally granted.   MYERS Family Genealogy ForumSearch this popular genealogy forum for the Myers surname to find others who might be researching your ancestors, or post your own Myers query. FamilySearch - MYERS GenealogyAccess over 9 million free historical records and lineage-linked family trees posted for the Myers surname and its variations on this free genealogy website hosted by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. MYERS Surname Family Mailing ListsRootsWeb hosts several free mailing lists for researchers of the Myers surname. DistantCousin.com - MYERS Genealogy Family HistoryExplore free databases and genealogy links for the last name Myers. The Myers Genealogy and Family Tree PageBrowse family trees and links to genealogical and historical records for individuals with the last name Myers from the website of Genealogy Today. References: Cottle, Basil.  Penguin Dictionary of Surnames. Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, 1967. Dorward, David.  Scottish Surnames. Collins Celtic (Pocket edition), 1998. Fucilla, Joseph.  Our Italian Surnames. Genealogical Publishing Company, 2003. Hanks, Patrick and Flavia Hodges.  A Dictionary of Surnames. Oxford University Press, 1989. Hanks, Patrick.  Dictionary of American Family Names. Oxford University Press, 2003. Reaney, P.H.  A Dictionary of English Surnames. Oxford University Press, 1997. Smith, Elsdon C.  American Surnames. Genealogical Publishing Company, 1997.

Business Law - Questions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Business Law - Questions - Assignment Example When an offer is made to the offeree, he can either accept or put down the offer made to him, if he accepts the offer, this means that the second element of the contract recognized as acceptance have been completed. If a contract has to be recognized as valid, it should contain the third element recognized as consideration. Consideration is the term assigned to a promise or a factor on which bargaining takes place, consideration is offered by the offerror and whether to accept the consideration or reject it or bargain on it is entirely in the hands of the offeree. Another important element of a contract is intention; the people involved in creation of a legal contract should have the intention of creating a legal contract and not just an agreement that has not been legally created. The last element of a contract is the certainty of the contract, this means that the contract should be concise and clear in nature so it can be enforced. Increase in the use of internet to conduct transac tion between the sellers and the buyers gave way for the creation of a distance contract. A distance contract is referred to a contract in which the buyer and the seller or the parties involved in the contract have never physically been in each other’s presence since the start of the contract till the end of the contract. For examples: a distance contract is created when parties are involved in selling and purchasing of goods and services over the internet through different means such as email, telephone calls and faxes. In this kind of contract, the seller or merchandiser is required to provide any information to the purchaser that might influence his purchasing decision, once the to be purchaser has accepted the information, the seller is required to provide the same details in written form, the merchandise has to be delivered to the purchaser within thirty days and if the purchaser wants he can cancel the contract with seven days of the date of delivery. For example, in Th ornton v. Shoe Parking case, the customer experienced injury in the parking area because of negligence caused by the defendant, the customer received the ticket of car parking after he had installed his money in the ticket machine, the terms and conditions that applied to the car parking area were stated on the ticket and the customer was not informed about the terms before he purchased the ticket, thus, the term of no exclusion of liability in case of personal injuries caused due to negligence was rejected as according to the distance contract, all information is to be provided before the purchase decision is made (Beale, 1990, p.337). Expressed terms refer to those stipulations and circumstances that are mentioned in the contact at the most specific level and are accepted by the parties involved in the creation of that particular contract, these terms can be in verbal, as well as written, form. For example, in the case of Bannerman V White, the purchaser had entered a contract wit h the seller on the terms that the hops he was purchasing were to be used to prepare beer and should not be treated with sulphur, the seller had assured him that they were not treated with sulphur, but they were actually treated with sulphur when the purchaser received them, thus, the seller was in breach of contract as the contract clearly stated that hops

Intermediate Microeconomic problem set section A & B Coursework

Intermediate Microeconomic problem set section A & B - Coursework Example It is only possible to have dominant strategy equilibrium as Nash equilibrium, and not Nash equilibrium as dominant strategy. A dominant strategy is a special case of Nash equilibrium since there can be a tie of the strategies made by the players, therefore, resulting in Nash equilibrium. At that point, no player is capable of making any move since any move made by any player makes them worse off. They can only make a move if the dominant player makes a move (Kelly, 2003). 5. What are production externalities and how can they be eliminated through a merger? Explain, also with the aid of an example illustrated by a diagram. Production externalities are costs or benefits to a party other than the producer. Production externalities can either be positive or negative. Positive production externalities are the benefits that ensue from production or the construction of a production unit in a place. The benefits are to the society. These benefits result from production externalities that co me about as a result of production by companies and industries. The costs that come about as a result of production sum up to negative production externalities. ... Industries emit harmful gases into the atmosphere through the various processes of production. Such gases pollute the environment and more so, the air people breathe. This results in respiratory diseases when inhaled and also destroys the ozone layer leading to changes in climate. Setting up of industries also involved creating space trough cutting down of trees. Planting and having such trees takes ages and this is a cost to the society. Another externality is that traffic jams ensue as industries take up more space for industrial construction. Positive production externalities are the benefits to other third parties other than the producer. Such benefits are enjoyed by third parties. The producer does not enjoy them. An example is where producers provide jobs to the community in which it is set up and provides sponsorships and produce quality and safe products to the society. Have to be charged for emission of gases or harmful substances into the environment. They also pay for poll ution permits in order to produce. Industries also pay taxes to the government which acts as a revenue. While society benefits from this, it is a cost to the producer. A merger is where industries come together and represent both industries as one. For example, when there is a fishing firm a manufacturing industry that emits sewerage to the water that the fish firm depends on. The fish firm may decide to buy the manufacturing firm so it becomes one company, so that it is able to control the pollution of the water resource. Thus, by merging the two industries, the costs of the production externality are controlled and reduced (Quiggin and Chambers, 2001). S=maginal social costs(MSC) S=marginal private costs (MPC) Price P* P B D=marginal social benefits (MSB) Q* Q Quantity The difference